Angiotensin converting enzyme

inhibitors should be avoided in the second and third trimester but are safe to use postpartum. Beta-blockers can be used when not contraindicated during pregnancy, and they can be used postpartum. During pregnancy, β-1 selective agents are preferred because β-2 receptor blockade may have an antitocolytic effect. Inotropic agents should be used in patients with signs of low cardiac output or with persistent congestion despite diuretics/afterload-reducing agents. Anticoagulation is recommended in patients with PPCM as these patients have a high incidence of LV thrombus, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical especially patients with an LVEF <35%. Heparin (unfractionated and low-molecular-weight) is favored in pregnancy since, unlike warfarin, it doesn’t cross the placenta. Warfarin should Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical be avoided as it is teratogenic in early pregnancy and has a risk of causing fetal cerebral hemorrhage in the second and third trimester. After delivery, PPCM should be treated according to current guidelines for heart failure.22 Specific Experimental Treatment Strategies Awaiting Further Validation Immunosuppressive agents: The prevalence of myocarditis in PPCM varies from 9–78%.32, 33 A single nonrandomized study

suggested that immunosuppression Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical may benefit women with biopsy-proven myocarditis.34 However, the Myocarditis Treatment Trial did not show any benefit of immunosuppressive medications Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and, given the risks of immunosuppressive therapy, they are currently not widely utilized.33, 35 Intravenous immune globulin (IVIG): The

role of IVIG in PPCM was evaluated in a retrospective study of six women treated with IVIG and 11 controls treated conventionally.36 After a 6-month click here follow-up, the absolute increase in LVEF was greater in those treated with IVIG compared to controls Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical (26% vs. 13%). However, the IMAC trial (Controlled Trial of Intravenous Immune Globulin in Recent-Onset Dilated Cardiomyopathy) showed that despite the potential therapeutic efficacy suggested by previous uncontrolled studies, immune globulin treatment of adult patients with recent-onset cardiomyopathy in this placebo-controlled trial did not affect improvements in LVEF or functional capacity during follow-up.36 Bromocriptine: This treatment strategy is based on an experimental observation of preventing Thiamine-diphosphate kinase PPCM in mice via prolactin blockade with bromocriptine.11 In a randomized open-label study performed in South Africa, 20 women with newly diagnosed PPCM were randomly assigned to receive either standard care plus bromocriptine or standard care alone.37 The 10 women receiving bromocriptine demonstrated significantly greater improvement in LVEF compared to the 10 women receiving standard care only (27% to 58% vs. 27% to 36%). One patient in the bromocriptine group died compared to four in the standard care group.

It is well known in the stroke field for example that the magnitude of recovery after focal lesion is greater in children than in older adults. However, we can find in the literature arguments both for and PS-341 price against the capacity of the older brain to adapt to pathological conditions. We can also find arguments to positive or negative effects of drug plasticity changes in aged people. From basic science Brain

plasticity Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in old animals Arguments can be found in the literature for compromised brain remodeling and plasticity associated with age.62-67 Arguments are summarized in a remarkable review by Hermann and Chopp.21 Aged rats respond to plasticity-promoting therapies, but age might have an effect on some of the processes targeted by neurorestorative interventions. Improved neurological recovery associated with

preservation of pyramidal tract axons ipsilateral to the stroke and enhanced pyramidal tract sprouting contralateral to the stroke was identified in 25-month-old or 12-month-old Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical rats with ischemia treated with neutralizing anti-NogoA antibodies, pharmacological compounds, or bone-marrow-derived Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical stromal cells. Although neurological recovery was successful, dendritic and synaptic plasticity of hippocampal CA3 and CA1 pyramidal and dentate gyrus granule cells was not influenced by anti-NogoA antibodies in old rats. The expression of plasticity-related proteins in neurons differs between young and old animals. An effect of age was not only seen for neuronal sprouting, but also for neurogenesis and angiogenesis. The numbers of proliferating neural precursor Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical cells in the subventricular zone and subgranular layer were lower in the brain tissue of 15-month-old rats than in that of 3-month-old

rats, both under normal physiological and ischemic conditions. Although the de novo generation of neurons in the ischemic striatum was very similar in both groups, neurogenesis was decreased in the dentate gyrus of 15-month-old rats when exposed to focal cerebral ischemia. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Reduced neurogenesis in old animals could be related to lower expression of VEGFR2 on the surface of neural precursor cells. Although evidence is limited to a rather small number of studies, the preserved neurological recovery in old animals argues against specific age limits for neurorestorative all treatments. Despite this evidence, the effects of age need to be controlled in clinical proof-of-concept studies.62-67 Comorbidities, vascular risk factors, and brain plasticity Vascular risk factors are often associated with stroke and so also with aging.68-71 They are part of the question and we can find also arguments in basic science for compromised brain remodeling and plasticity associated with vascular risk factors. Experimental studies poorly mimic comorbidities, because experiments are done mainly in animals that are otherwise healthy.

Hence, the derivation of cardiomyocytes from CPVT patients can provide the means to study, in the mutated myocytes, the functional changes and the underlying molecular mechanisms of CPVT, screen and develop candidate drugs on a patient-specific level, and thus advance our understanding of the disease and consequently improve its future clinical outcome. Although DADs were described in vitro Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and in vivo in CPVT mouse models, the demonstration that these phenomena

were responsible for arrhythmogenesis in humans was largely a consequence of genetic research.52 Therefore, our findings37 and those of others38,39 demonstrating the generation of DADs and triggered arrhythmias in human CPVT patient-derived Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical cardiomyocytes are of great importance. Finally, investigating the responsiveness, to anti-arrhythmic

drugs, of CPVT-mutated cardiomyocytes from individual patients may give rise to the future application of “personalized medicine,” which is likely to reduce the morbidity and mortality of patients affected by inherited arrhythmias. Abbreviations: Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical CASQ2 cardiac calsequestrin CICR calcium-induced calcium release CPVT catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia CRU calcium release unit DADs delayed afterdepolarizations Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical EB embryoid body E–C www.selleckchem.com/products/gdc-0068.html excitation–contraction ICD intraventricular cardioverter defibrillator iPSC induced pluripotent stem cells RyR2 cardiac ryanodine receptor SR sarcoplasmic reticulum Footnotes Conflict of interest: No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.
The term sociotype Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical has been introduced to describe

the dynamic relationship of an individual with his/her social environment throughout the life trajectory.1 It is a framework for understanding how people manage life in general, and chronic disease in particular. The sociotype interacts with Florfenicol genotype expression through, for example, mate selection, epigenesis, and metabolic programming, and with the phenotype throughout life from birth to old age. The sociotype is an explanatory framework that analyses and expands the many factors usually included in the environmental influences on a person’s life. The sociotype is constituted by individual health, relationships, and environment. Every person is thus a product of the prevailing mores and his/her “three-fold cord”—genotype, phenotype, and sociotype. Figure 1 shows these interactions. Figure 1 The relationship of the sociotype to genotypic expression and the phenotype throughout the life cycle.

Other neurotransmitter influences are most likely exerted in all parts of this circuit, in both the basal ganglia and the cortex. Given this hypothesis, the obvious proposition is to modulate the circuit’s activity at other neurochemical sites in the circuit. This proposition may underlie the putative therapeutic actions Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of glutamatergic27 and GABAergic28

compounds in schizophrenia.
Several lines of evidence suggest that both central serotonin (5-HT) and noradrenaline (NA) dysfunction may play a role in the pathogenesis or pathophysiology of major depression1-5. The serotonergic hypothesis of depression6 is based on several findings: the ability of tryptophan depiction to induce depressive symptoms, higher postmortem 5-HT2A/C receptor binding and lower postmortem 5-HT1A receptor binding in the brains of depressed Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical patients, and reduced responsiveness of the serotonergic system to neuroendocrine challenge studies. Various serotonin probes have been proposed as an index of the overall functional status of the central serotonergic system, but

fenfluramine (a 5-HT releaser/uptake inhibitor) is the most widely used. Both d-fenfluramine (d-FEN) and the racemate have been used, but the former is a more specific serotonergic probe, since it lacks Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the dopaminergic and noradrenergic action of df-fenfluramine. There have been some studies of the hormonal response to d-FEN in depressed patients but the results are inconsistent. Some authors7 found a decreased

Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical prolactin (PRL) response in patients with major depression compared with normal control Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical subjects, but others8 could not replicate this finding. However, these studies did not address whether a blunted PRL response correlates with suicidal behavior. A recent study9 analyzed a sample of outpatients without a history of a suicide attempt and did not find a difference between normal volunteers and depressed patients in the PRL response to d-FEN. The original catecholamine depletion hypothesis of depression Ketanserin has been reformulated as the “noradrenergic dysregulation hypothesis,”10 which emphasizes a primary subsensitivity or downregulation in nerve terminal α2-adrenoreceptors, leading to impaired negative feedback on the presynaptic neuron, which, in turn, mayinduce a disinhibition of NA PLX4032 solubility dmso output and exaggerated NA release in response to any activation of the catecholaminergic system. One of the most consistently reported abnormal findings in depression is a blunted growth hormone (GH) response to the acute administration of clonidine, a partial α2-adrenoreceplor agonist, suggesting subsensitive postsynaptic α2-adrenoreceptors at the hypothalamic level.

Moreover, MMP-2/αVβ3 integrin complexes and MMP-9 are present at the surface of angiogenic blood vessels and cancer cells, respectively and their targeting by inhibitory peptides showed antitumor effects [147, 148]. MMP-targeting of Caelyx doxorubicin-loaded liposomes by insertion of a DSPE-PEG3400-CTT2 conjugate, the CTT2 peptide binding to MMP 2 and 9, led to increased doxorubicin accumulation in tumors and extended the survival of ovarian carcinoma xenograft-bearing mice over unmodified Caelyx Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical liposomes [40]. 2.2.4. Small Molecule-Mediated Tumor Targeting Aberrant tumor growth is correlated

with a greater demand for nutrients relative to healthy organs and has been exploited for tumor targeting. To sustain their rapid growth, tumor cells overexpress Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical folate receptor to capture the folate required for DNA synthesis [149]. The overexpression of folate receptor in cancers of several histology relative to normal tissues, the low cost of folic acid (FA), and the vast library of conjugation reactions available

make it one of the most used ligands for tumor-targeted drug delivery and tumor imaging (reviewed in [150]). Inclusion of a FA-PEG-DSPE Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical conjugate into irinotecan-loaded liposomes enhanced drug concentration in tumors after intravenous injection over untargeted liposomes or free irinotecan resulting in the highest anticancer activity without detected side toxicity [41]. Similarly, folate-targeting of doxorubicin-loaded liposomes increased the survival of tumor bearing mice by 50% over untargeted liposomes [111]. Lee et al. used Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical tetraiodothyroacetic acid, a competitive inhibitor of thyroid hormone binding to the endothelial cell integrin αVβ3, as a new ligand for tumor-targeted drug delivery. This ligand increased liposomal accumulation in tumors after intravenous injection and enhanced anticancer activity of the encapsulated anticancer drug

edelfosine [151]. Estrogen receptors are often this website overexpressed Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in breast and ovarian cancers and conjugation of the ovarian estrogenic hormone estrone to doxorubicin-loaded liposomes resulted in a dramatic increase in doxorubicin accumulation in breast tumors after intravenous injection over free drug or untargeted PEGylated doxorubicin-loaded liposomes (24.3 and 6.0-fold, resp.) resulting in the highest therapeutic activity [42, 112]. Similarly, conjugation Isotretinoin of a luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) analog to the surface of docetaxel-loaded liposomes increased docetaxel accumulation in ovarian xenografts by 2.86-fold over untargeted docetaxel-loaded liposomes with decreased liver and spleen capture though binding to the LHRH receptors highly overexpressed in ovarian cancer [152]. The basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) receptor is also overexpressed in several cancers [153].

Data suggests significant treatment related toxic effects without a strong clear message of additional benefit. There have been no successful studies to demonstrate the individual single agent activity of these agents except the multi-targetted agent rogarafenib (133) or any advantage with combination chemotherapy. Pre-clinical studies with Gefitinib have shown that Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical there are additive effects when combined with both

radiotherapy and chemotherapy (134). In the clinical setting, a phase I trial combining gefitinib, capecitabine, and radiation in rectal cancer, resulted in significant toxicity, and no recommended phase II dose could be recommended (59). A small Italian study of 41 patients treated patients with ultrasound defined T3/T4 or N+ rectal cancer using a combination of prolonged venous infusion (PVI) of 5-FU and Gefitinib with pelvic radiotherapy (60). They reported a pCR of 30%. However, significant grade 3 toxicity was seen, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical 21% of these were GI symptoms and 26% hepatic, such that 61% of patients

required a dose reduction. We did not find a single study integrating Erlotinib into radiotherapy in the neoadjuvant setting, either published or Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical presented Predictive markers In other disease sites there is evidence of marked intratumour heterogeneity in samples obtained from a single tumour biopsy. Not all genetic aberrations (including Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical mutations, allelic imbalance, and ploidy) present in the entire tumor specimen are demonstrated in a single biopsy. This observation sets major challenges to personalized—medicine and future biomarker development (135). Although some less invasive clinical markers have been proposed for bevacizumab, such as circulating endothelial cells (CECS), circulating levels of VEGF and the development of overt hypertension, these biomarkers have not been validated and are observed to emerge only after a trial of the agent.

For cetuximab, the appearance of an acneiform rash is associated with response, but low levels of magnesium appear more controversial. EGFR Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Tumours are heterogeneous with regards to EGFR expression, but it is now accepted that testing for level of expression is irrelevant, and does not predict response (136,137), nor clinical outcome in trials of EGFR-positive mCRC utilising cetuximab. However, patients lacking any EGFR expression were ineligible. It is difficult to explain how a tumor with perhaps less than 1% of cells expressing Florfenicol low levels of EGFR has the same likelihood of response to an agent that supposedly only targets that population, than a tumor where 90% of cells express high levels of the target. In contrast interest has Small molecule library solubility dmso centred on K-ras status, because K-ras mutations appear constitutively to activate the signalling pathways, and stimulate cell proliferation (138). KRAS, BRAF and PIK3CA mutations are commonly found in colorectal cancers.

Demographic, psychiatric, and substance dependence information from these two groups are presented (Table II). By design, participants were similar in terms of demographic characteristics including age, education, ethnicity, and sex. Twelve of the participants had a diagnosis of Bipolar I, and an additional 3 participants had a diagnosis of Bipolar II. Half (9/18) of the participants in the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical HIV+ group

without bipolar disorder met criteria for a lifetime diagnosis of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD); however, only 11% (2/18) met criteria for a current depressive episode. Twenty-seven percent (4/15) of participants in the bipolar group met criteria for a current depressive episode and an equivalent amount (27%; 4/15) met criteria for a current manic episode (2 manic episodes, 1 hypomanic episode, 1 extreme irritability episode). Also as anticipated, participants in the bipolar group tended to take a greater number of psychotropic medications; Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical 93% (14/15) in bipolar group were taking more than one psychotropic medication as www.selleckchem.com/products/DAPT-GSI-IX.html compared with 33% (6/18) in the group without bipolar disorder. The bipolar group also had higher scores on both the Young Mania Rating Scale and the Beck Depression Inventory-II, and lower scores on global assessment, of functioning. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Table II Demographic, psychiatric, and substance abuse/dependence characteristics of study group

(HIV+/BD+ v. HIV+/BD-). Data are mean (SD) or percent (n). * Other bipolar participants are bipolar II (n=3). BD, bipolar disorder; BDI-II, Beck Depression Inventory … The rates of current alcohol, marijuana, and methamphetamine Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical dependence were

relatively low in both groups; however, rates of lifetime marijuana and methamphetamine dependence were elevated among participants with bipolar disorder and HIV infection as compared Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical with those with HIV alone, and rates of lifetime alcohol dependence were elevated in both groups (Table II). When examining abuse or dependence of methamphetamine instead of focusing exclusively on dependence, 65% (9/15) of the bipolar group met criteria for lifetime methamphetamine abuse or dependence as compared with 28% (5/18) in the group without bipolar disorder. Detailed neuropsychological test results arc pending larger sample sizes; however, with the cognitive impairments Rolziracetam found in both bipolar disorder and persons with methamphetamine dependence, we anticipate significant neuropsychological impairments among our participants with both bipolar disorder and HIV infection, and possibly even greater impairments among those with bipolar disorder, HIV infection, and methamphetamine dependence. Implications of impaired cognition for everyday functioning among persons with bipolar disorder Cognitive impairment, appears to be one of the strongest predictors of everyday functioning difficulties in several populations including bipolar disorder24 and HIV infection.

Authors’ contributions SB, AT, MM, MA and FW had the initial idea to the study and arranged the study design and questionnaire. Literature search was performed by SB and AT, collecting of the data was performed

by SB, AT, MM, MA, and FW and analysis and interpretation of the data was done by SB, AT, MM, MA, and FW. SB, AT, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical MM, MA and FW wrote and reviewed the manuscript before submission. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Pre-publication history The pre-publication history for this paper can be accessed here: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-227X/9/7/prepub Supplementary Material Additional file 1: Complete status-quo-questionnaire. Displayed is the complete questionnaire. Click here for file(98K, pdf) Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank all responsible, engaged and involved physicians, who invested the time to fill out the

questionnaire accurately. Furthermore, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical we want to thank especially Prof. E. Hahn, MD, who as the chairman of the German Society of Medical Education supported this evaluation and the founding of the Society’s “committee for emergency medical care and simulation” as much as possible.
Medical complications related to drugs account for a significant fraction of patient visits to the emergency department (ED). These visits Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical may be a result of illicit drug abuse, intentional or inadvertent overdose of prescription or over-the-counter medications, or drug-drug interactions [1-3]. There is increasing concern about the danger posed by misuse of prescription medications, particularly those with high potential Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical abuse liability (e.g., opioids), especially when used in combination with ethanol or street drugs [4]. In some patients, such as those with

altered mental status, a medical history may be unclear at the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical time of presentation to the ED. To aid in the diagnosis and management of drug-related complications, laboratory tests to this website screen for the presence of drugs and drug metabolites are widely used in emergency medicine [3,5]. We will refer to these tests as ‘drug of abuse/toxicology (DOA/Tox) screening tests’. Over the last four decades, a number of methods have been used for DOA/Tox screening including Resveratrol antibody-based assays (immunoassays) [6,7]. DOA/Tox immunoassay screens for amphetamines, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, cannabinoids, methadone, opiates, and tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) were first introduced into clinical practice in the United States in the 1970s, initially as radioimmunoassays and later as non-radioactive immunoassays [8,9]. Immunoassays have steadily displaced other DOA/Tox screening methods such as thin-layer chromatography or colorimetric assays [7].

For example, a recent quantitative review confirmed the prevalence of recollection memory deficits in schizophrenia and its important role in functional outcome. This review examined, in addition, the distinction between recollection and familiarity. Contrary to earlier reports that only recollection is impaired in schizophrenia, the authors found evidence that both recollection and familiarity deficits can be documented. However, the effect sizes are smaller for familiarity than for recollection deficits, suggesting that the former uses

a compensatory ability while the latter could serve as a treatment target. These findings implicate multifocal medial temporal Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical lobe and prefrontal cortex dysfunction.24 buy ABT-199 Figure 5. Neuropsychological profile (±SEM) for patients with schizophrenia Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical (n=36) relative to controls (n=36) whose performance is set to zero (±1 SD). Functions are abstraction (ABS), verbal cognitive (VBL), spatial organization

(SPT), semantic … Such studies, and others like them, have delineated the cognitive deficits in schizophrenia and led to the recognition that these deficits are core features of schizophrenia spectrum disorders.25,26 Thus, an extensive literature has well documented the deficits Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical associated with the disorder and has evolved with advances in cognitive neuroscience and in functional neuroimaging. While we focus here on episodic memory, it is important to emphasize that diffuse deficits have been noted in schizophrenia across neurocognitive domains. Among the domains investigated in schizophrenia, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical social cognition has been a relatively more recent addition that has attained considerable interest, and has been related to negative symptoms and poor functional outcome.27,28

Studies have shown deficits in the ability to identify facial and vocal expressions of emotions, and these deficits have been Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical related to abnormalities in brain activation in the temporo-limbic network. For example, abnormally increased activation in the amygdala to the appearance of a face expressing threat-related emotion, such as anger or fear, was associated with greater likelihood of performance error and more severe symptoms of flat affect.29,30 To examine the relationship between flat affect and neurocognitive profile we compared patients with flat affect with second those with normal affect, based on a standard clinical rating scale. The results indicated that patients with flat affect indeed performed more poorly on facial emotion identification tests. However, they did not differ from their counterparts without flat affect on any of the neurocognitive measures except for word memory Figure 6). This suggests that the memory and emotion processing abnormalities are linked, implicating the medial temporal structures such as hippocampus and amygdala.31 Figure 6.

The AFC and event-related power spectra describe the brain system’s transfer properties, eg, excitability and susceptibility to respond, by revealing resonant as well as salient frequencies. The AFC does not simply represent the spectral power density characterizing the transient signal in the frequency domain but the predicted behavior of the system (brain) assuming sinusoidal modulated input signals of defined frequencies were applied as stimulation. Since it reflects amplification in a given frequency channel, the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical AFC is expressed in relative units. Hence, the presence

of a peak in the AFC or post-stimulus spectra reveals the resonant frequencies interpreted as the most preferred oscillations of the system during the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical response to a stimulus. In order to calculate the AFC, ERP are first averaged and then transformed to the frequency domain using a one-sided Fourier transform (Laplace transform).15,24 Brain oscillations in response to stimulation have helped to advance the analysis. First of all, in order to perform Fourier analysis of brain responses, an averaging procedure is applied to the data of healthy subjects and patients. Following artifact rejection, selective averaging is performed. The averaged potentials (EP and/or ERP) are then analyzed using a fast Fourier transform (FFT) and single Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical epochs are digitally filtered based on the cut-off

frequencies of the evoked power spectra. Lastly the

data are averaged across subjects to Duvelisib order produce a grand average. Another option is power spectral analysis Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of the grand average with adaptive digital filtering. Examples of changes in the electroencephalogram and event-related oscillations Power spectral analysis of the spontaneous electroencephalogram Power spectral analysis of spontaneous EEG activity is one of the most successfully applied methods Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical for identifying biomarkers. (Figure 1). shows the grand averages of power spectra in 18 bipolar euthymic subjects (red) and 18 healthy controls (black) in the alpha frequency range for the eyes closed recording session from occipital locations (O1, Oz, and O2): the power spectrum in the euthymic subjects ranged up to 1 μV2 across all electrodes but up to 4.8 μV2 for O1, 4 μV2 for Oz, and 4.5 μV2 for O2 Mephenoxalone in the controls. Figure 1. Eyes closed mean power values for occipital (O) electrodes. Modified from ref 25: Basar E, Güntekin B, Atagün Mi, Turp Gölbasi B, Tülay E, Özerdem A. Brain’s alpha activity is highly reduced in euthymic bipolar … Event-related spectra in the alpha frequency range are also drastically reduced in BD.25 Only the marked decrease in alpha power shown in (Figure 1). could possibly serve as a neurophysiologic marker in BD. Phase locking in the gamma band in healthy subjects In inter-trial coherence plots of EROs (Figure 2), the general time course and frequency composition are completely changed. Figure 2.