, 2011). In this study we tested the following hypotheses: i) based on temporal trend monitoring studies the estimated human exposure to PFOS and PFOA is lower, and the indirect intake is relatively more important compared to previous estimations, ii) given that PFOA is the dominant PFCA in human serum, estimated

total intakes for other PFCA homologues (perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA), perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA), perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA) and Dabrafenib price perfluorododecanoic acid (PFDoDA)) are lower than PFOA, and contributions of direct versus indirect exposure vary widely by homologue, and iii) the PFOS isomer pattern in total PFOS intake can help to explain the isomer pattern observed in human serum. The direct and indirect intakes of PFAAs and precursors are estimated through four major exposure pathways (ingestion of dust, dietary and drinking water intake, and inhalation of air) using the latest monitoring selleck kinase inhibitor data that have become available since 2008 (including samples from 2007). The approach used here to estimate the indirect (precursor) contribution to PFOS and PFCA exposure has been previously described by Vestergren

et al. (2008) and uses Scenario-Based Risk Assessment (SceBRA) modelling (Trudel et al., 2008). The methodology defines typical low-exposure, intermediate-exposure, and high-exposure to chemicals of the general

adult population through multiple pathways. The 5th percentile, median, and 95th percentile of each input parameter are used to represent the low-, intermediate-, and high-exposure scenarios, respectively. The low-exposure scenario represents a “best case” scenario with respect to human exposure to PFAAs, whereas the high-exposure scenario represents a “worst case” scenario. Fig. 1 Histidine ammonia-lyase shows the concept of the estimation of precursor contribution to PFOS and PFCA exposure, and the PFAAs and precursors that are included in this study (see Table S1 for PFAA and precursor chemical structures). In this study, peer-reviewed data are included that were published after the study by Vestergren et al. (2008). This includes samples that were taken during and after 2007. There have been significant advances in analysis of PFAAs and their precursors in exposure media in recent years (e.g. increased instrument sensitivity and improved understanding of contamination issues) (Berger et al., 2011). Therefore, the use of recent data will not only allow for an assessment of the recent exposure situation but will also allow for a more accurate assessment. Certain PFAAs and precursors were phased out in North America and Europe in 2002, however, they are still produced in some continental Asian countries, especially China (Wang et al., 2014).