Hyaluronic acid’s ability to activate click here the NLRP3 inflammasome was dependent on CD44 47. Further studies will be required to delineate the contribution of individual endogenous DAMP in the priming versus activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. Necrosis can also lead to the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome within the cell undergoing necrosis if components for the inflammasome are present (Fig. 2). Following cellular disruption the inflammasome can spontaneously form and acquire the ability to process pro-IL-1β into its mature form 5, 31. The restoration of potassium, to levels approximating

that found within the cytosol of normal cells, inhibits this spontaneous inflammasome formation. This suggests the low potassium environment created by potassium efflux from the cell is the requirement for the assembly of the components of the NLRP3 inflammasome 31. Li et al. identified an indirubin oxime derivative, 7-bromoindirubin-3′-oxime (7BIO) that was

capable of inducing necrosis with the concurrent activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome 48. Unlike the sensing of necrotic cells by macrophages and dendritic cells, 7BIO-induced caspase-1 activation was independent of ATP and the P2X7R. Taken together these results have a number of therapeutic implications. Inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome activation may have beneficial effects in preventing the damage mediated by the sterile inflammatory response in diseases such as renal, cardiac and cerebral ischemia. In addition, necrosis-induced sterile inflammation in trauma and secondary find more to infections and sepsis may be modulated by inhibitors of the NLRP3 pathway. The use of the IL-1R antagonist, anakinra, has already been shown to be effective in reducing the adverse events associated with a number of ischemic disease models 49, 50. Conversely, the adjuvant properties of Roflumilast NLRP3 inflammasome activation can be exploited as demonstrated by the increased immunogenicity of chemotherapy-induced tumor cell necrosis 37. The development of specific antagonists of the NLRP3 inflammasome and an improved understanding of the specific mechanisms that

lead to NLRP3 inflammasome activation will be instrumental in developing new therapeutic modalities against the growing number of pathologies associated with inappropriate activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. This work was supported by National Institutes of Health grants K08 AI065517 (F.S.S.) and K08 AI067736 (S. L. C.). Conflict of interest: The authors declare no financial or commercial conflict of interest. See accompanying Viewpoint: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/eji.200940180 “
“Department of Botany and Microbiology, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, USA Human pathogenic spirochetes causing Lyme disease belong to the Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato complex. Borrelia burgdorferi organisms are extracellular pathogens transmitted to humans through the bite of Ixodes spp. ticks.