54 While both affective and behavioral characteristics are important elements of psychopathy, the affective deficits have traditionally been considered to be the root cause of the psychopath’s problems. Affective deficits in psychopathy have most often been understood in the context of the low-fear model.55 Consistent with

this model, psychopaths display poor fear conditioning,55 minimal electrodermal response in anticipation of aversive events,56 and a lack of startle potentiation while viewing unpleasant versus neutral pictures.57 However, other studies examining startle Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical potentiation (eg, fear-potentiated startle and emotionmodulated startle) demonstrate that the psychopathy-related fear deficit is not absolute, but rather conditional depending on contextual variables.58-60 Neuroimaging evidence suggests that psychopaths display reduced amygdala activation than controls during aversive conditioning, moral decision-making, social cooperation, and reduced Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical memory for emotionally salient words.61-64 However, results from imaging studies focused Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical on the amygdala are ambiguous. Other research indicates that the amygdala is hyper-reactive when psychopaths view certain emotionally salient scenes.65 Thus, existing research does not indicate the presence of

a reliable fear deficit in psychopathic individuals, though such deficits may be revealed under specific circumstances. One explanation for the inconsistent nature of psychopathy-related fear deficits may involve an abnormality in attentional processes. Developments in neuroscience indicate that the function of the amygdala is more complex than just fear processing, and likely plays a significant role in attention and in detecting relevance.66 With regard to psychopathy, according to the response modulation hypothesis, attention Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical plays a crucial role in moderating fear and self-regulatory deficits. Response modulation involves the “temporary

suspension of a dominant response set and a brief concurrent shift of attention from the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical organization and implementation of goal-directed responding to its evaluation” (p 717). 67 In the absence of normal response modulation, an individual is prone to ignore crucial contextual information needed to evaluate his or her behavior and exercise adaptive self-regulation.68-69 Consequently, psychopaths are oblivious to potentially meaningful peripheral information because they fail to vitamin d reallocate attention while engaged in goal-directed behavior. This difficulty kinase inhibitor Dorsomorphin balancing demands Brefeldin_A to process goal-directed and peripheral information creates a bias whereby psychopaths are unresponsive to information unless it is a central aspect of their goal-directed focus of attention. An important implication of the response modulation hypothesis is that the emotion deficit of psychopathic individuals varies as a function of attentional focus. A recent experiment by Newman et al60 involving fearpotentiated startle (FPS) provides striking support for this hypothesis.