225 (3.1%) proteins in C. albicans (Lum & Min, 2011). Possibly, saprophytic filamentous fungi need to secrete a large

spectrum of specialized enzymes to degrade dead plant and animal material (De Vries & Visser, 2001). These observations suggest that secretome size is not only correlated with genome size, but also with the complexity of the life cycle (resulting in more cell types), and also lifestyle. A common feature of all secretomes, including that of C. albicans, is the tightly controlled expression and secretion of the constituting proteins. Secreted proteins that are GSI-IX chemical structure not required in specific niches are repressed, for example, if a certain nutrient is not present or if the pH for effective activity is not optimal (Sorgo et al., 2010; Buerth et al., 2011;

Ene et al., 2012). The protein content of the growth medium of C. albicans under various conditions is relatively low and comprises only 0.1–0.2% of the total dry biomass (Sorgo et al., 2010). Besides the expected secreted proteins, about one-third does not possess a secretion signal. However, the majority of proteins in the secretome contain a signal peptide (SP; about two-thirds); in addition, Selleckchem Bafilomycin A1 a significant amount of GPI-modified SP proteins (>40%), that are meant to be covalently attached to the cell membrane or wall, have been found in the growth medium (Sorgo et al., 2010, 2011; Ene et al., 2012; Heilmann et al., submitted; Fig. 1). Some proteins of C. albicans that possess an ER retention signal or N-terminal transmembrane domain are occasionally found in the culture medium (Sorgo et al., 2010). Possibly, retention is incomplete, and some ER proteins are, nonetheless, delivered to the cell surface. Occasionally, cytosolic proteins without secretion signal are also detected in the

extracellular environment. As they do not possess an N-terminal SP, it is conceivable that they reach the cell Immune system surface via a nonconventional secretion route, as has been discussed (Chaffin et al., 1998; Nombela et al., 2006; Nickel, 2010). As the known functions of these proteins in C. albicans are directed toward intracellular targets, a designated export mechanism seems less likely. The active secretion of membranous vesicles containing cytoplasmic freight has been first described for Cryptococcus neoformans (Rodrigues et al., 2007) and was later found in other fungi as well. In Histoplasma capsulatum, the vesicle cargo mainly consisted of lipids and proteins, including important virulence factors, hinting at a function as ‘virulence bags’, most likely to increase the local concentration of an effector (Albuquerque et al., 2008). Another possible explanation for cytosolic proteins in the extracellular environment is the presence of lysing cells or apoptotic cells, which can undergo membrane blebbing (Phillips et al., 2003).