Gene 1996,169(1):9–16.PubMedCrossRef 48. Brautaset T, Sekurova ON, Sletta H, Ellingsen TE, Strøm AR, Valla S, Zotchev SB: Biosynthesis of the polyene antifungal antibiotic nystatin in Streptomyces noursei ATCC 11455: analysis of the gene cluster and deduction of the biosynthetic pathway. Chem Biol 2000,7(6):395–403.PubMedCrossRef 49. He W, Lei J, Liu Y, Wang Y: The LuxR family members GdmRI and GdmRII are positive regulators of geldanamycin

biosynthesis in Streptomyces hygroscopicus 17997. Arch Microbiol 2008,189(5):501–510.PubMedCrossRef 50. Stragier P, Richaud F, Borne F, Patte JC: Regulation of diaminopimelate BAY 63-2521 cost decarboxylase synthesis in Escherichia coli. I. Identification of a lysR gene encoding an activator of the lysA gene. J Mol Biol 1983,168(2):307–320.PubMedCrossRef 51. Maddocks SE, Oyston PC: Structure and function of the LysR-type transcriptional regulator (LTTR) family proteins. Microbiology 2008,154(Pt 12):3609–3623.PubMedCrossRef 52. Wilkinson CJ, Hughes-Thomas ZA, Martin

check details CJ, Bohm I, Mironenko T, Deacon M, Wheatcroft M, Wirtz G, Staunton J, Leadlay PF: Increasing the efficiency of heterologous promoters in actinomycetes. J Mol Microbiol Biotechnol 2002,4(4):417–426.PubMed 53. Martinez-Castro M, Barreiro C, Romero F, Fernandez-Chimeno RI, Martin JF: Streptomyces tacrolimicus sp. nov., a low producer of the immunosuppressant tacrolimus (FK506). Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2011,61(Pt 5):1084–1088.PubMedCrossRef 54. Salehi-Najafabadi Z, Barreiro C, Martinez-Castro

M, Solera E, Martin JF: Characterisation of a gamma-butyrolactone receptor of Streptomyces tacrolimicus: effect on sporulation Acesulfame Potassium and tacrolimus biosynthesis. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2011,92(5):971–984.PubMedCrossRef 55. Chater KF, Chandra G: The use of the rare UUA codon to define “”expression space”" for genes involved in secondary metabolism, development and environmental adaptation in streptomyces. J Microbiol 2008,46(1):1–11.PubMedCrossRef 56. Chen D, Zhang Q, Cen P, Xu Z, Liu W: Improvement of FK506 production in Streptomyces tsukubaensis by genetic enhancement of the supply of unusual polyketide extender units via utilization of two distinct site-specific recombination systems. Appl Environ Microbiol 2012, 78:5093–5103.PubMedCrossRef Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Authors’ contributions DG and MB carried out cloning, overexpression and gene disruption experiments, promoter activity studies, bioinformatic and data analysis, participated in experiment design and drafted the manuscript. VM participated in the selleck products initial set-up of the chalcone synthase reporter system and provided support with the experiments. JH performed the HPLC and data analysis. EK participated in the design of the genetically manipulated strains. TP provided analytical support. JSA performed the RT-PCR studies. MMC and CB performed RNA isolation. PM and GKopitar provided support with gene cluster sequence analysis and experiment design.

In the aerobic layer, both oxygen and glucose are consumed. Once the oxygen has been depleted, utilization of glucose stops. Abundant glucose, approximately 125 mg l-1, is predicted to be available at the bottom of the biofilms studied

in this investigation. We note that P. aeruginosa is unable to ferment glucose and no arginine was present, precluding fermentative growth selleck chemicals [33, 34]. No alternative electron acceptor, such as nitrate, was added to the medium used in these studies. Therefore, growth by denitrification was also precluded. The expression of genes associated with denitrification in the biofilm (Figure 3D, Table 3) may have been a response to oxygen limitation. In summary, once oxygen was depleted in this system, one would predict that growth would cease. Biofilm harbors slowly-growing or non-growing bacteria We hypothesize that oxygen limitation in P. aeruginosa drip-flow biofilms resulted in slow growth or lack of growth of many of the bacteria in the biofilm. The expression of an inducible GFP was focused in a sharply demarcated band immediately adjacent to the oxygen source. This band represented approximately 38% of the biofilm, indicating that as

much as 62% of the biofilm could be anoxic and anabolically inactive. Because alternative fermentable substrates or electron acceptors were absent, oxygen limitation is expected to be sufficient to lead to arrested growth in anoxic regions of the biofilm. This interpretation GSK2126458 cost is qualitatively consistent with previous studies of

oxygen availability and this website spatial patterns of physiological activity in some Leukocyte receptor tyrosine kinase other P. aeruginosa biofilms [12–14, 35, 36]. Transcriptomic data show that the biofilm exhibited stationary phase character (Figure 3E). This is evident in the pronounced expression of rmf, a stationary-phase inhibitor of ribosome function [37], cspD, a stationary-phase inhibitor of replication [38], and rpoS, a stationary-phase sigma factor[27]. In a previous investigation, we independently reported the elevated expression of rpoS in P. aeruginosa biofilms [39]. A gene associated with early exponential phase growth, fis, was expressed at relatively low levels, consistent with very slow growth. Our estimate of an average specific growth rate of 0.08 h-1 is approximately ten percent of the specific growth rate of P. aeruginosa in this medium of 0.74 h-1. Colony biofilms of a mucoid strain of P. aeruginosa had a reported specific growth rate that was two percent of the maximum specific growth rate in that system [13]. Here we consider two alternative conceptual models for growth and activity within the biofilm. These models attempt to address the microscale heterogeneity that is obviously present and which the transcriptional analysis is incapable of resolving. Both of these conceptual models view the biofilm as having two layers of differing growth rates.

Plain X-rays of the abdomen reveal dilatation of the small bowel and air-fluid levels [3]. CT scan, eventually with oral contrast, shows the dilatation of proximal bowel and the collapse of distal bowel [4, 5]. Also ultrasounds may be click here useful [6, 7]. The key of management of small bowel obstruction is the identification of intestinal strangulation,

because mortality increases from 2 to 10 folds in such cases. Therefore an immediate surgical repair with an eventual bowel resection is mandatory. However, the clinical diagnosis of small bowel strangulation is extremely difficult and CT scan becomes very useful, usually on the basis of either bowel wall thickening, mesenteric edema, asymmetrical enhancement with contrast, pneumatosis, or portal venous gas. Mortality for small bowel obstruction has decreased during the past 50 to 60 years from 25% to 5% [8–20]. selleck kinase inhibitor Initial therapy aims at correction of depletion of intravascular fluids and electrolyte

abnormalities. The patient should be given nothing by mouth and nasogastric tube should be inserted in IGF-1R inhibitor patients with emesis. In patients with adhesive small intestine obstruction, water-soluble contrast medium (Gastrografin®) with a follow-through study has not only a diagnostic but also a therapeutic role, because it is safe and reduces the operative rate and the time to resolution of obstruction, as well as the hospital stay [21–23]. Surgical intervention is instead mandatory for patients with a complete small bowel obstruction with signs or symptoms indicative of strangulation, perforation or those patients with simple obstruction that has not resolved within 24 to 48 hours Chloroambucil of non operative treatment [23]. The surgical approach

includes adhesiolysis and resection of non viable intestine. The extension of intestinal resection depends on the purple or black discoloration of ischemic or necrotic bowel. Viable intestine also has mesenteric arterial pulsation and normal motility. When ischemic damage is more limited, is sufficient adhesiolysis followed by a 10-15 minutes period of observation to allow for possible improvement in the gross appearance of the involved segment. The role of laparoscopy in small bowel obstruction has still to be defined. Certainly, laparoscopy represents a diagnostic act and sometimes has a therapeutic role [24, 25]. The major indication is small bowel obstruction due to unique band adhesion without signs of ischemia and necrosis. In laparoscopic procedures the first trocar has to be positioned using Hasson’s technique for open laparoscopy to avoid accidental bowel perforations related to bowel distension and adhesions with the abdominal wall. After that, two 5 mm trocars must be introduced under vision to explore the peritoneal cavity and find the bowel segment obstructed by the band adhesion. If ischemic or necrotic bowel is present conversion to open surgery may be necessary.

Mol Microbiol 1998, 29:1053–1063.PubMedCrossRef 15. Ferenci T: Hungry bacteria—definition Protein Tyrosine Kinase inhibitor and properties of a nutritional state. Environ Microbiol 2001, 3:605–611.PubMedCrossRef 16. Steinsiek S, Bettenbrock K: Glucose transport in Escherichia coli mutant strains with defects in sugar transport systems. J Bacteriol 2012, 194:5897–5908.PubMedCrossRef 17. Seeto S, Notley-McRobb L, Ferenci T: The multifactorial influences of RpoS, Mlc and cAMP on ptsG expression under glucose-limited

and anaerobic conditions. Res Microbiol 2004, 155:211–215.PubMedCrossRef 18. Natarajan A, Srienc F: Dynamics of glucose uptake by single Escherichia coli cells. Metab Eng 1999, 1:320–333.PubMedCrossRef 19. Gama-Castro S, Salgado H, Peralta-Gil M, Santos-Zavaleta A, Muniz-Rascado L, et al.: RegulonDB version 7.0: transcriptional regulation of Escherichia coli K-12 integrated within genetic sensory response units (Gensor Units). Nucleic Acids Res 2011, 39:D98-D105.PubMedCrossRef 20. Madigan

MT, Martinko JM, Stahl DA, Clark DP: Brock biology of microorganisms. 13th edition. San Francisco: Pearson Education Inc.; 2012. 21. Wolfe AJ: The Pritelivir manufacturer acetate switch. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2005, 69:12–50.PubMedCrossRef 22. El-Mansi EM, Holms WH: Control of carbon flux to acetate excretion during growth of Escherichia coli in batch and continuous cultures. J Gen Microbiol 1989, 135:2875–2883.PubMed 23. Dittrich CR, Bennett GN, San KY: Characterization of the acetate-producing pathways in Escherichia coli. Biotechnol Prog 2005, 21:1062–1067.PubMedCrossRef

24. Castano-Cerezo ICG-001 supplier S, Pastor JM, Renilla S, Bernal V, Iborra JL, et al.: An insight into the role of phosphotransacetylase (pta) and the acetate/acetyl-CoA node in Escherichia coli. Microb Cell Fact 2009, 8:54.PubMedCrossRef 25. Gimenez R, Nunez MF, Badia J, Aguilar J, Baldoma L: The gene yjcG, cotranscribed with the gene acs, encodes an acetate permease in Escherichia coli. J Bacteriol 2003, 185:6448–6455.PubMedCrossRef 26. Kumari S, Beatty CM, Browning DF, Busby SJ, Simel EJ, et al.: Regulation of acetyl coenzyme A synthetase in Escherichia coli. J Bacteriol 2000, 182:4173–4179.PubMedCrossRef 27. Liu M, Durfee T, Cabrera JE, Zhao K, Jin selleck inhibitor DJ, et al.: Global transcriptional programs reveal a carbon source foraging strategy by Escherichia coli. J Biol Chem 2005, 280:15921–15927.PubMedCrossRef 28. Rosenzweig RF, Sharp RR, Treves DS, Adams J: Microbial evolution in a simple unstructured environment: genetic differentiation in Escherichia coli. Genetics 1994, 137:903–917.PubMed 29. Treves DS, Manning S, Adams J: Repeated evolution of an acetate-crossfeeding polymorphism in long-term populations of Escherichia coli. Mol Biol Evol 1998, 15:789–797.PubMedCrossRef 30. Zaslaver A, Bren A, Ronen M, Itzkovitz S, Kikoin I, et al.: A comprehensive library of fluorescent transcriptional reporters for Escherichia coli. Nat Methods 2006, 3:623–628.PubMedCrossRef 31.

coli and the only abundant protein whose level was altered in response to H2O2, we decided to investigate the influence of flagellin on the survival of the ΔarcA mutant E. coli in the presence of H2O2. To determine if the higher protein levels of flagellin in

the ΔarcA mutant E. coli was due to higher levels of mRNA, we examined the expression of the fliC transcripts by Real-Time Reverse Transcriptase PCR analysis (RT-PCR). RNA was prepared from the wild type and ΔarcA mutant E. coli before and after exposure to H2O2, and subjected to RT-PCR analysis. CP-690550 nmr Similar to protein levels, the ΔarcA mutant E. coli had higher levels of fliC mRNA than the wild type E. coli both TH-302 in vivo constitutively and after exposure to H2O2. In both strains, H2O2exposure reduced the fliC mRNA level progressively (Figure 5). The difference in fliC mRNA levels between the wild

type and ΔarcA mutant E. coli decreased with longer exposure periods and no difference could be detected by 120 minutes of exposure (Figure 5). To determine if ArcA directly regulates fliC expression, we expressed and purified recombinant ArcA from aerobic cultures of E. coli and carried out electrophoretic mobility shift assay of the fliC upstream sequence. No specific binding was detected (data not shown). Figure 5 Expression of fliC messenger RNA is regulated in response to H 2 O 2 exposure. Expression of fliC messenger RNA is regulated in response to H2O2 exposure. The wild type and the ΔarcA mutant E. coli was exposed to H2O2, and the fliC messenger RNA in wild type (diamond) and the ΔarcA mutant E. coli (square) was quantified by Real-time Reverse Transcriptase PCR after various periods of SHP099 concentration exposure. The level of the fliC messenger RNA in the unexposed

wild type E. coli (at 0 hour) learn more was arbitrarily set as 1, and levels of fliC messenger RNA in other samples were expressed as relative expression levels and plotted against the exposure time. At least three experiments were performed, and results from a representative experiment performed in triplicates are shown. Error bars indicate standard deviation. Deletion of flagellin increased the survival of the ΔarcA mutant E. coli Flagellin is one of the most abundant proteins in E. coli, and we have shown that its level was higher in the ΔarcA mutant E. coli both constitutively and upon H2O2 exposure (Figure 4 and Table 2). We reasoned that expressing an abundant protein such as flagellin at a higher level might be a burden to the ΔarcA mutant E. coli, especially under stress conditions such as those caused by H2O2. We hypothesize that a deletion of flagellin encoded by fliC may facilitate the survival of the ΔarcA mutant E. coli exposed to H2O2. To test this hypothesis, we generated a non-polar ΔfliC mutant and an ΔarcA/ΔfliC double mutant E. coli. The non-polar deletion of fliC itself had no obvious effect on the survival of E. coli in the presence of H2O2 (Figure 6).

The third patient requiring emergency surgery

presented with haematemesis to one of our local District General FGFR inhibitor Hospitals. Although endoscopy confirmed a bleeding gastric ulcer, the haemorrhage could not be controlled endoscopically. The patient proceeded to theatre for laparotomy and a 3 cm ulcer high on the greater curvature was found with a central bleeding vessel. This was under-run and biopsies taken which confirmed adenocarcinoma. The patient made a good recovery and was referred to our centre for definitive oncological management. A total gastrectomy was performed six weeks following his initial presentation, the final histology was T1N0 adenocarcinoma, Ro 61-8048 in vivo 0/39 nodes. The patient survived for two years following this procedure. Emergency procedures after 24 hours The remaining 39 emergency patients were managed without operative intervention over the first 24 hours. Fifteen patients presented with haematemesis. Nine received endoscopic intervention (injection, Argon-beam laser, heater probe) for bleeding PSI-7977 concentration control. Four

patients were not actively bleeding at the time of endoscopy, and no further procedure was performed at this time. One patient had a large bleeding polyp removed at endoscopy, and three patients required injection of adrenaline to bleeding ulcerated areas. In one of these patients an endoclip was applied and argon plasma coagulation (APC) successfully performed. In only one case was endoscopic therapy not successful in controlling bleeding and this patient proceeded to theatre as described above. Overall 29 patients had some form of operation after complete

staging, often on separate admission. Patients presenting with gastric outlet obstruction were managed conservatively via nasogastric decompression in the initial period whilst further investigations were undertaken to stage their disease and plan further intervention. In 2 cases expanding Rolziracetam metal stents were inserted endoscopically allowing oral intake and palliative oncological therapies. Subsequently 3 out of 42 emergency patients (7.1%) and 44 out of 249 elective patients (17.6%) had neoadjuvant chemotherapy after their initial assessment (p < 0.05). Survival Overall survival Twelve patients from the elective group and three patients from the emergency were lost to follow-up. One year survival for patients presenting as an emergency was 48.3% compared to 63.4% in elective patients (p = <0.02). By 3 years follow-up there were only two survivors from the emergency presentation group (14.3%), while 32.5% of the elective patients survived to 3 years (p = <0.006). The overall survival is shown on the Kaplan Meier plot on Figure 2. Figure 2 Kaplan-Meier curve showing comparison of survival between patients presenting as an emergency and electively.

However, the final proof came when the Govindjees published their results showing the learn more Emerson Enhancement in NADP (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) reduction in spinach thylakoids (see e.g.,

Rajni Govindjee et al. 1964). In addition, mass spectroscopic results with Oxygen-18 water provided additional proof that the two-light effect was in photosynthesis, not in respiration (see e.g., Govindjee et al. 1963; also see Owens and Hoch 1963); and the Enhancement Effect was shown to exist even in deuterated Chlorella cells (Bedell and Govindjee 1966). Also throughout this period, Govindjee did extensive work in characterizing the two light reactions and two pigment systems by other biophysical techniques. We do not discuss these results here,

but refer to a chapter in a book that discusses the evolution PRIMA-1MET of the current Z-scheme of photosynthesis (see Govindjee and Björn 2012). 2. How does the minimum quantum requirement for oxygen evolution fit the above picture? And, what did MDV3100 cost Govindjee do? It is obvious that one would need a minimum of 8–10 quanta of light to release one molecule of oxygen in the current Z-scheme. Otto Warburg had insisted that this number is 3–4, not 8–10, the number that Emerson—who had been Warburg’s student—had always favored. Govindjee initially began his PhD under the supervision of Robert Emerson and held Emerson in high regard. Thus after Emerson’s death in 1959, when Warburg started telling people that Emerson’s values were wrong because Emerson had not used young synchronous cultures of algae and had not given his Chlorella cells 10 % CO2 that is needed for the low quantum requirement; he, along with Rajni Govindjee, rose to the occasion

and repeated the experiments under Warburg’s new conditions, and proved Emerson right and Warburg wrong (R. Govindjee et al. 1968). A first discussion was given by Govindjee (1999) and now, the entire controversy is covered in a wonderful book PARP inhibitor by Nickelsen and Govindjee (2011). 3. On the discovery of new absorption and emission bands in photosynthesis: brief comments During his studies in the 1960s, and in search of characterizing the pigment systems, Govindjee and coworkers discovered many new absorption and emission bands. Amongst these many reports, several stand out and these give a sense of his curiosity. First was a discovery of a pigment that absorbs at 750 nm, called P750, in the cyanobacterium Anacystis nidulans (now Synechococcus elongatus strain PCC 7942) (Govindjee et al. 1961): it was rediscovered by many and a full story is summarized in Govindjee and Shevela (2011); it is, unfortunately, not involved in photosynthesis.

On this basis, we could consider two (different clinico-pathological) subsets of early onset CRC: the greatest percentage represented by left sided CRC without important family history (no Amsterdam Criteria fulfilled) and the lowest percentage represented by LS related CRC, with Amsterdam II criteria fulfilled and

typical features of the syndrome. Our major concern was whether we should have performed a molecular screening in both subsets of early onset CRC. In order to address this issue and considering that all Lynch syndrome associated CRC display MSI-H [4], we performed a logistic regression model to identify features predictive of MSI-H. The regression tree revealed, indeed, that using the combination of the two features “No Amsterdam Criteria” and “left sided BAY 80-6946 mw CRC” to BAY 11-7082 concentration exclude MSI-H, has an accuracy of 89.7% (Figure 2). Interestingly, in the group with no family history, we identified OTX015 molecular weight 3 MSI-H cases. The germline mutation analysis did not confirm LS diagnosis in any of the patients as MMR deleterious mutations were not found. Despite this, we observed

an acquired MLH1 promoter hypermethylation in one case, with loss of PMS2 expression at IHC. Lack of MLH1 expression affects PMS2 protein stability and explains its loss at IHC, thus we classified this case as “sporadic colorectal cancer” [41]. Moreover, we identified a single nucleotide polymorphism (c.116G > A; p.Gly39Glu; rs1042821) in the MSH6 gene, in two cases in which IHC detected a normal expression of the corresponding protein. This polymorphism (MSH6 G39E) encodes a non-conservative amino acid change where it is unknown whether the variant affects protein function. MSH6 G39E is reported, in one study to confer Farnesyltransferase a slight risk of CRC in males (OR 1.27; 95% CI 1.04 to 1.54), higher in MSI-H than MSS (OR 1.30; CI 95%) [38]. Other authors reported in

MSH6 G39E homozygous patients an increased risk of rectal cancer only [42]. The observed association should be interpreted with caution, since no association was found between the MSH6 variant and the overall CRC, probably due to the small number of rectal cases included in the study. The secondary aim of the present study was to compare the diagnostic accuracy of IHC and MSI analysis in early onset CRC to select the best technique to start with in the suspected LS. We observed that MSI analysis had a higher diagnostic accuracy (95.7% vs 83.8%) sensitivity (100% vs 75%), specificity (94.8% vs 85.6%) and AUC (0.97 vs 0.80) than IHC (Figure 1). In fact, had we not used MSI analysis, we could have missed four LS cases not detected by IHC in the group with Amsterdam II Criteria. Even in the early-onset group, IHC was misleading as it showed a lack of expression of MMR genes in three MSS patients in which the germline mutation analysis did not reveal any deleterious mutation.

The Future Earth initiative, created by scientists and decision

makers, may serve as a model to rapidly advance awareness of and open channels for transdisciplinary research both within and beyond the international arena. One of the aims of the symposium that is the backdrop to this special issue was to foster better check details collaboration between scientists and the decision-making and policy arena. The Arico paper examines how sustainability science carried out in both academic and policy arenas can be mutually supportive in further elucidating how, proactively, the transdisciplinary approach can enhance the attainment of sustainable development at multiple scales. In the first article in the cluster on barriers to transdisciplinary research, Schneider presents a conceptual approach to transdisciplinary scenario building for sustainable water governance and analyzes its application in a specific Swiss setting. The approach combines normative, explorative and participatory scenario elements in an iterative

process that ensures the input of stakeholder and local knowledge to the scientific process, thus VX-765 in vivo establishing a robust and meaningful dialog between all the actors involved and stimulating mutual learning. Based on her findings, Schneider argues that scenario analyses can be a tool for strategy development for envisioning sustainable futures, i.e., a vision of what the either this website future should be. For the actors to truly engage in the co-production of knowledge, however, Schneider maintains that both stakeholders and scientists must remain flexible through the process and the project

leadership must create conditions of interaction that put both on equal footing in the discussions. Continual collaboration and the iterative process were keys in the application of the scenario approach for overcoming barriers to developing transformative knowledge. In the second article of this cluster, Wittmayer and Schapke look more closely at the roles of researchers in process-oriented sustainability research in which joint knowledge production is central and researchers actively participate in dialogs for change (Miller 2012). They consider this approach in a historical context going back to action research and transition management rooted in the early 20th century, for example in the work of John Dewey. The authors of this paper focus on the ways researchers can create spaces for societal learning and identify key issues that researchers must address in doing so: for example, as Schneider observed, issues of ownership, sustainability, power and action. They then distinguish the activities and roles that are connected to addressing each of these issues and define a set of ideal type roles.

Bacterial nodules, galls, and endosymbionts A huge diversity of bacterial symbionts colonize plants, animals, and even fungi [53]. Some of these are largely pathogenic, but many provide the host with essential services, including, for example,

cellulose degradation, nitrogen metabolism, and fat metabolism in ruminant animals [54]. The GO currently has many terms that describe aspects of the mutualism between legumes and nitrogen fixing bacteria, including “”GO: 0009877 nodulation”" (Additional file 1, Figure 1, and Figure 2), defined as “”the formation of nitrogen-fixing root nodules Selleck Romidepsin on plant roots”" [10]. Other terms from the Cellular Component ontology describe the physical components

of this mutualism, including “”GO: 0043663 host bacteroid-containing symbiosome”", defined as “”a symbiosome Foretinib containing any of various structurally modified bacteria, such as those occurring on the root nodules of leguminous plants, of a host cell”" [10] (Additional file 1). In contrast to mutualistic root nodulation, “”GO: 0044005 induction by symbiont in host of tumor, nodule, or growth”" is defined as “”the process by which an organism causes the formation of an abnormal mass of cells in its host organism…”" [10] (Figure 2). As a child term of “”GO: 0044003 modification by symbiont of host morphology or physiology”", this term could be used to describe the tumor-inducing activity of Agrobacterium tumefaciens, which results in plant galls [55]. There are many examples of bacterial endophytes, whose nutritional needs are met while supplying hosts with necessary nutrients or other benefits such as bioluminescence. The

free-living, nitrogen-fixing bacterium Acetobacter diazotrophicus, which colonizes sugar cane, benefits from the low O2 levels and high sucrose levels necessary for nitrogenase activity [56]. In the symbiosis of the squid Euprymna scolopes and Vibrio fischeri bacteria, the CYC202 clinical trial bioluminescence of the bacteria, housed in a bilobed light organ, acts as an anti-predatory mechanism for the squid [57]. Symbiont-induced host tissue development leads to the formation of the light organ that houses the bacteria [58] and might be described by “”GO: 0052111 modification by symbiont of host structure”", Branched chain aminotransferase defined as “”the process by which an organism effects a change in an anatomical part or cellular component of the host organism”" [10] (Figure 2). To describe the growth of V. fischeri within the E. scolopes light organ, “”GO: 0044412 growth or development of symbiont within host”" could be used (see Figure 2 for this and the following examples). In the case of A. diazotrophicus inside sugarcane, it might be appropriate to use a more specific child term such as “”GO: 0075067 growth or development of symbiont in host intercellular space”".